Marine Archaeology
Prior to the completion of the St. Lawrence seaway in 1958, Kingston played an important role in Great Lakes shipping and maritime commerce; Kingston's situation at the confluence of Lake Ontario, the St. Lawrence river, and the Great Cataraqui River (after 1832 the southernmost stretch of the Rideau Canal) made it a natural strategic and commercial centre. Today, Great Lakes ship traffic passes south of Wolfe Island, missing Kingston, and little marine traffic other than yachts and pleasure craft enter the harbour. The prolific maritime activity that took place within the harbour during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, however, provides for an abundance of archaeological material off the shores of Kingston: this material exists chiefly in the form of shipwrecks, abandoned ships, piers, and wharves.
- About Marine Archaeology
- A Brief History of Shipping and Wrecks Around Kingston
- Diving at Kingston, Mussels, and Preserve Our Wrecks
- Aloha
- Comet
- Cornwall
About Marine Archaeology
Marine archaeology is similar in philosophy and methodology to on-land archaeology, though the equipment employed may differ slightly. A popular conception of marine archaeology tends to associate it with the investigation of sunken ships and wharves; another extremely important aspect of marine archaeology in North America, however, is the investigation of native habitations that were once situated on the banks of a river or lake, but that have since become submerged by the progress of water.
A Brief History of Shipping and Wrecks Around Kingston
Following the capture of Fort Frontenac by the British from the French in 1758, resettlement of the Kingston area did not begin in earnest until the United Empire Loyalists began to arrive from the United States in the 1780s. The arrival of the Loyalists signalled the beginning of Kingston's growth in commercial and strategic importance; Kingston became the base of the Provincial Marine, and Point Frederick the site of a naval dockyard in 1789. The military presence at Kingston grew substantially during the War of 1812-1814, and in 1813 the Royal Navy took over the base at Point Frederick from the Provincial Marine (at which point it became known as the Royal Naval Dockyard) and initiated a frenetic programme of shipbuilding. The "late-model" warships built at Point Frederick, which saw very little action, were laid-up in Navy Bay for two decades following the war. During the 1830s, several were broken up completely, and at least two were towed around to and abandoned at Deadman Bay. The largest warship afloat, the St. Lawrence, was auctioned off and then towed across to Kingston in 1832 to serve as a storehouse for a large brewery owned by Robert Drummond and James Morton, where the hull gradually disintegrated and disappeared under shallow water. The remains of at least three warships built at Point Frederick during 1813 and 1814 survive at Kingston, including the St. Lawrence and the Kingston (originally called the Prince Regent).
The War of 1812-1814 also led to the construction of Fort Henry on Point Henry, and the construction of an Ordnance Wharf on the point is associated with this period; the wharf likely served during the maintenance and operation of the fort. A large wharf of a different variety exists a stone's throw from the remains of the St. Lawrence; built as early as the 1830s, it also served Drummond and Morton's brewery. The wharf was used for bringing in raw materials for the business, and for shipping out the finished product. This sort of industrial and commercial activity was characteristic of the bustling port of Kingston in the mid nineteenth century, which, between 1841 and 1843, served as the capital of the Province of Canada.
Throughout much of the nineteenth century, Garden Island, five kilometres south of Kingston, was home to one of Kingston's most important and diversified businesses: the Calvin & Co timber forwarding, shipbuilding, and towing/salvage enterprise existed between 1830 and 1914. The backbone of the company's trade was timber forwarding; "sticks" of timber from around the Great Lakes were brought to the Back Bay of Garden Island for assembly into large rafts, which were then towed down the St. Lawrence River to Quebec. Many of the company's schooners (and, later, steamers) which brought this timber to Garden Island or towed the rafts were built on Garden Island, and, when they became unfit for service afloat, as many as twenty-three vessels were put to work as piers and breakwaters in a marine graveyard in the Back Bay of Garden Island.
Deep-water marine graveyards west of Kingston, rather than the shallow waters of Back Bay, are home to two former Calvin & Co steamers. The side-wheel steamer Cornwall served the company as a salvage tug for a short period, was sold, and was ultimately scuttled south of Amherst Island circa 1931. The other vessel, the screw-propelled tug William Johnston, met a similar fate southwest of Simcoe Island in the 1930s. At least ten vessels lie in each of these two graveyards (south of Amherst Island and southwest of Simcoe Island), many of which were removed from shallow-water graveyards in Kingston and Portsmouth harbours in 1925 and 1937, respectively.
Each of the aforementioned sites was positioned deliberately, and, strictly speaking, they are not "shipwrecks;" the true shipwrecks in the vicinity of Kingston were deposited through disaster. The majority of wrecked ships near Kingston are schooners, the workhorses of lake shipping between the late eighteenth and late nineteenth centuries, and most were engaged in shipping small to medium-sized bulk cargoes (e.g. lumber, agricultural produce, coal) on the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River (the large, wooden-hulled screw-steamers that carried the largest bulk cargoes, and the metal-hulled screw-steamers that replaced them in the early twentieth century, were somewhat less prone to disaster). The schooners Annie Falconer, Olive Branch, George A. Marsh and William Jamieson, as well as the schooner-barge Aloha, for example, were coal laden when they were wrecked near Kingston.
The steamship passenger and passage freight on the Great Lakes was inaugerated with the launch of the sidewheel steamship Frontenac in 1816, which was built at Bath, Ontario, just west of Kingston. If the workhorse of bulk shipping through most of the nineteenth century was the schooner, the side-wheel steamer was the workhorse of passenger, package, and mail routes during this period. An excellent example of this type of vessel is the Comet, built at Portsmouth in 1848, and wrecked near Kingston in 1861.
One unique submerged vessel which was neither sail- nor steam-propelled is the Munson, a dredge that sank abreast of Lemoine Point in 1890 while being towed to Belleville. One of the most recent shipwreck discoveries in the Kingston area involves yet another Calvin & Co. built tug, the Frontenac, lost while returning from a salvage job on Main Duck Island in 1929. Unlike her sister tug, the William Johnston, she was not stripped of machinery and gear before going down, and thus paints a much richer archaeological picture.
Whatever the nature of the formation of the sites (deliberate or through disaster), they form a representative sample not only of the ships that worked in and around Kingston, but also of the shore-bound facilities required to operate these ships. These sites include some of the best or only surviving examples of certain classes of ships in the Great Lakes.
Diving at Kingston, Mussels, and Preserve Our Wrecks
Sport diving at Kingston began in the 1950s, when two of the most popular dive sites were Navy Bay and Deadman Bay, each of which contained significant numbers of artifacts. Not until the 1960s did wreck diving begin in earnest; at this point began an impressive series of discoveries, beginning with the relocation of the schooner City of Sheboygan in 1963. During the 1960s and 1970s, wreck diving in the Kingston area grew in popularity, and an increasing number of wrecks were "opened-up" for visiting divers who were taken to the sites by charter-boat operators. Several Kingston-area wrecks were publicised in diving magazines, a fact which served simply to increase the underwater traffic. Unfortunately, a great deal of souvenir collection took place during this period, and some sites were completely stripped of portable artifacts which found their way into private and public collections; as well, many sites were damaged by visiting dive boats which anchored into wrecks. Not all sites were stripped clean, however, and by the late 1970s a shift began to occur towards the presevation of sites. In 1980, the deliberate removal of a winch from the schooner-barge Aloha was the catalyst for the formation of Preserve Our Wrecks Kingston by a group of area divers. The founding of P.O.W. coincided with the formation of the province-wide organisation Save Ontario Shipwrecks. P.O.W. employs peer pressure, public education, and the installation of moorings on some of the most popular sites (to prevent anchor damage) in its attempt to preserve Kingston-area historic shipwrecks from senseless damage. In 1982, P.O.W. conducted an archaeological survey of the schooner Annie Falconer, and monitoring of this site continues today.
Throughout the 1980s, the efforts of P.O.W. and S.O.S. significantly curtailed historic shipwreck stripping in the Great Lakes, and led to a higher level of awareness among sport divers regarding the importance of site preservation. In the mid 1980s, however, a new problem arose for those interested in the preservation and study of Ontario's marine heritage. The introduction of the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) and the quagga mussel (Dreissena bugensis) affected marine heritage conservation in two somewhat paradoxical manners: on the one hand, sport divers, charter-boat operators, archaeologists, and preservation groups alike have benefitted from a dramatic improvement in underwater visibility as a result of the filtering action of the mussel; on the other hand, acute mussel coverage obscures the surfaces of submerged cultural resources, hindering observation and study. Furthermore, the physical removal of mussels damages the surface to which they were attached. Zebra and quagga mussels were first observed near Kingston in 1993, and P.O.W. presumes that, in the near future, significant, if not complete, mussel coverage of historic shipwrecks in the Kingston area is inevitable. Given that the surfaces of sites may never be visible again in their present condition, P.O.W. initiated a photo project to record the sites before they are obscured. The text and photographs here are courtesy of P.O.W., and are taken from that photo project.
Aloha
The two-masted schooner-barge Aloha was built by William Dulac at Mt. Clemens, Michigan, in 1888, and enrolled 173ft x 32.5ft x 12ft, 521 gross tons, 500 net tons, United States official number 106542. The Aloha was under American enrolment until 1913, at which point it assumed Canadian registration at 171.2ft x 32ft x 12ft, 512 gross tons, 517 net tons, Canadian official number 134264.
Under tow of the steamer C.W. Chamberlain of Toronto, the Aloha was hauling 925 tons of coal from Erie, Pennsylvania to the Kingston Locomotive Works when she foundered in the early morning of October 28, 1917, abreast of Nine Mile Point, Simcoe Island. At the time of sinking her home port was Midland, Ontario, and she was owned by Milnes and Kerr, coal dealers at Toronto. Four crew members were saved, but the captain, Daniel McVicar, was lost. The wreck was later salvaged, resulting in the removal of the decks and cargo, probably with a clam-shell.
Relocation of the Aloha took place in August of 1964; the ship was found by Kingston divers Lloyd Shales and Barbara Carson. A number of artifacts raised from the site at the time are now held by the Marine Museum of the Great Lakes at Kingston. In 1980 a deck winch was removed from the bow of the wreck, an incident which caused extensive damage and led directly to the formation of Preserve Our Wrecks Kingston.
The Aloha rests in 55ft of water, approximately 1.5 km northwest of Nine Mile Point, Simcoe Island. The wreck is upright on a level sandy bottom; the vessel is generally intact from stem to stern post, and the wooden framework and hull planking survive to deck level. No sections of the bullwarks survive in situ.
The bow is intact to deck level and a section of deck beams and deck planking are in situ (to approximately 30ft aft of the stem), where an anchor windlass and anchor chain rest on the deck planking. A substantial tow-bitt stands approximately 10ft above this section of decking towards the chain locker. The heads of the stem and apron survive above the level of the main deck, and draught marks are still visible in the stem. A weather deck once stood above the main deck at the bow and supported a steam winch, accounting for the height of the tow-bitt and the stem/apron assembly. The weather deck was destroyed in 1980 when the steam winch was removed, and the remains of the weather deck structure now lie at the base of the port side of the bow. The donkey boiler lies off the starboard side near the bow.
Aft of the bow section with its in situ decking, the hull is much more broken up. Deck stanchions, deck beams, and ceiling planking remain in situ (and the beam shelf here is exposed), but most of the deck beams and planking lie off the starboard side in large sections, removed as a result of the salvage of the coal cargo; the interior of the hull is, therefore, open to view. The hull is filled with sediment to a level above the keelsons, and very little of the cargo of coal remains. At the stern, another section of deck planking is in situ, but the stern is generally broken up, and the transome has fallen into the lake bed. The capstan lies dislocated at the stern.
There are few artifacts at the site of the Aloha. Apart from surfaces covered with silt, virtually the entire wreck is covered with zebra and/or quagga mussels (the extent of mussel coverage is considered to be 90%).
Comet
The side-wheel steamer Comet was built by George N. Ault at Portsmouth, Ontario in 1848, and registered at Kingston at 174ft x 23.5ft x 10ft, 336.1 tons. She was fitted with 1835 vintage beam-engines from an older steamer, and served on the passenger and steamboat freight routes on the St. Lawrence River and Lake Ontario. After her boiler exploded and she sank at Oswego, New York in 1851, she was rebuilt and renamed Mayflower. The vessel's name reverted to Comet in 1858.
En route from Kingston to Toronto on May 14, 1861, the Comet collided with the American schooner Exchange (bound for Kingston) southwest of Nine Mile Point, Simcoe Island, and sank after trying to run for the shelter of the point. Two crewmen died, but all other crew and passengers reached shore safely.
Relocation of the Comet took place in 1967, when the ship was found by Kingston divers following a five-year search; at the time of discovery, numerous artifacts were raised, many of which are now housed at the Marine Museum of the Great Lakes at Kingston.
The Comet lies upright in 80ft of water on a flat lake bed, approximately 3 km southwest of Nine Mile Point. The site survives from stem to stern post; the midships section of the site is complex and much more three dimensional than the bow and stern sections, which survive only to about the turn of the bilge. The level of survival of the hull is generally poor, and it does not survive above the level of the lower deck anywhere in the hull: all of the superstructure and cabins have collapsed and disintegrated. The salient features of the site are the upstanding paddle wheels, engines, and two A-frames (which support a walking beam) near midships. On both the port and starboard sides, the two drive trains from the engine cylinders, via the walking beams, to the paddle wheels, are intact. Both the port and the starboard sponson and sponson assemblies are also in situ, although the paddle boxes have disappeared; unfortunately, most of these upright fixtures are now covered in a thick deposit of zebra and/or quagga mussels. The tops of the paddle wheels and walking beams are approximately 60ft deep; under the lower deck, between the A-frames, the two boilers are in situ; sections of the Comet's smokestacks lie off the starboard side at midships; as well, there is a large debris field of wooden hull components off the starboard side.
The paddle wheels are positioned slightly aft of the A-frames, and a large timber joins the tops of the two A-frames. Both wheels are still intact, but a spoke of the outboard side of the port paddle wheel is missing. Both wheels have separated from the wheel hubs: the port paddle wheel is heeled slightly to starboard, and the starboard paddle wheel is heeled slightly to port. The forward end of the starboard walking beam is depressed towards the top of the engine cylinder, and the aft end is elevated. The port walking beam is oriented opposite the starboard walking beam.
The bow section of the wreck (forward of the A-frames) is characterized by an undulating lower deck which has collapsed into the hull (as it is no longer supported by the boilers). The deck forward of midships, which is punctuated by a hatch companionway, survives to just aft of the anchor windlass, where the hull is generally broken up and flattened. Winches are positioned next to two surviving hatches in the bow section.
The stern section of the hull (aft of the A-frames) has flattened and retains little three dimensional integrity, except at the transom, where the stern post assembly and transome are partially intact, and still support the rudder. No in situ decking survives in the stern section, however, frames and ceiling planking (surmounted by wooden diagonal bracing) are exposed here. In the midships section, the boilers serve to support the lower deck from collapse. The hull retains some integrity in the vicinity of the A-frames and paddle-wheels, and a diver may access the area under the lower deck, forward between the two boilers, through a hatch or companionway situated between the A-frames. Both engines are in situ.
The extent of mussel coverage is considered to be 30%-40% on lower hull structures, and close to 100% on upright features, including the walking beams, parts of the paddle wheels, A-frames, and engine components.
The historical and archaeological significance of the Comet deserves special note: "The engines of the Comet are both the earliest and finest surviving examples of marine engineering in central Canada. Built in Canada's premier marine engine foundry, the Eagle Foundry of Montreal, they are typical of the engines that powered most pre-Confederation vessels in the region. As added bonuses, they are virtually undamaged, in situ, and in water shallow enough to perform a serious survey work."
Cornwall
The iron-hulled luxury side-wheel steamer Kingston was launched at Montreal in 1854. She served primarily on Lake Ontario and the upper St. Lawrence River routes, and underwent name changes to Algerian, later to Bavarian, and finally to Cornwall in 1905. She was purchased by the Calvin Company in 1911, at which point she was converted into a salvage tender. Shortly thereafter, she was purchased by the Donnelly Salvage and Wrecking Co., based in Kingston; after laying idle at Portsmouth harbour for a number of years, she was purposely sunk in the Amherst Island Graveyard circa 1931.
Relocation of the Cornwall took place in 1989; the ship was relocated by Kingston diver and Preserve Our Wrecks Kingston member Rick Neilson.
The Cornwall lies upright in 75ft of water, approximately 4 km south of the eastern end of Amherst Island. The level lake bed at the site consists of sand.
The riveted iron-plate hull survives from stem to stern post, past the turn of the bilge throughout, in most sections to the level of the beam shelf. Throughout the site, the deck has collapsed and is no longer in situ, and none of the wooden superstructure survives. The central section of the hull is highly three-dimensional, the salient features being two paddle wheels standing near midships, and two large boilers in situ between the paddle wheels. The vessel's beam engine was removed prior to scuttling, but the engine mounts (which supported the engine) and the A-frames which supported the walking beam are in situ.
A 33ft long section of the hull at the bow is partially articulated to wooden deck beams and deck planking; this assembly is heeled to starboard. A wooden anchor windlass is still mounted on this decking. Aft of the partially articulated bow section, the interior of the lower hull is exposed (apart from debris and sediment), although some disarticulated sections of wooden decking lie inside and outside of the hull. Particularly noteworthy is the fact that the iron keelson assembly is exposed and clearly visible, as are the interior of the hull plating and the fastening patterns of this plating.
Further aft the engine mounts straddle the central keelson and lower hull framing, and they run aft between two boilers. On either side of the boilers is a paddle wheel with self-feathering paddle blades. The starboard wheel and wheel shaft are in situ, but the port wheel and the wheel shaft are only partially articulated and are heeled sharply to port. Both the port and the starboard sponson and sponson-beam assemblies are in situ, but are partially broken up; the fragile wheel boxes have long since disappeared.
The engine mounts continue aft of the boilers, and in the aft section of the wreck the lower hull is also exposed, although a large section of decking has collapsed at the stern. Also of note is the fact that the round stern is articulated to the level of the beam shelf, and the stern post and rudder are articulated (and stand upright) to the stern. There are a number of large artifacts (such as tools) throughout the site, and several brass port holes pierce the hull and are in situ. Most of the wreck is covered by zebra mussels, especially the boilers and the paddle wheels. The extent of mussel coverage is considered to be about 60%, but up to 100% on upright structures such as boilers and paddle wheels.